Performance management Theories

Performance Defined

Performance means both behaviors and results. Behaviors emanate from the performer and transform performance from abstraction to action. Not just the instruments for results, behaviors are also outcomes in their own right- the product of mental and physical effort applied to tasks – and can be judged apart from results by Brumbach (1988: 387).

Performance management

Performance management is a systematic process for improving individual, team and organizational performance. Brumbach (1988: 389) suggest that ‘human performance is managed in order to achieve positive successes, avoid negative successes and failures and be hospitable to positive failures’. Getting better results by understanding and managing performance within an agreed framework of planned goals, standards and competency requirements are means of the individual-level performance management.

The individual performance management  for the aligns individual objective to organizational objectives and encourages them to uphold corporate core value, enable expectations to be defined and agreed in terms of role responsibilities and accountabilities and behaviors, provides opportunities for individuals to identify their own goals and develop their skills and competencies.

Underpinning theories – Buchner (2007)

Goal theory

Goal theory, as developed by Lathanm and Locke (1979), highlights four mechanisms that connect goals to performance outcomes.

01.  They direct attention to priorities

02.  They stimulate effort

03.  The challenge people to bring their knowledge and skills to bear to increase their chances of success

04.  The pore people will draw on their full repertoire of skills.

Advantage- supports the emphasis on performance management on setting and agreeing objectives against which performance can be measured and managed.

Control Theory

Control theory focuses attention on feedback as a means of shaping behaviors. As people relieve feedback on their behavior they appreciate the discrepancy between what they are doing and what they are expected to do and take corrective action to overcome the discrepancy. Feedback is recognized as a crucial part of performance management process.

Social Cognitive theory

This suggests that what people believe they can or cannot do powerfully impacts on their performance. The social cognitive theory was developed by Bandura (1986). It is based on his central concept of self-efficacy. Developing and strengthening positive self-belief in employees is, therefore, an important performance management objective.

Reference/Bibliography

Armstrong, M. (2012) Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 12th edition

https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_87.htm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c1ojeClTzYM

researchgate.net/figure/Banduras-model-of-Social-Cognitive-Theory-representing-the-triangular-relationship_fig2_257633027

Flexible working

Introduction

Reconsidering traditional employment patterns are calling as flexible working. Better operational flexibility, advance the use of employees’ skills and capacities, increase productivity and employment cost are the aims of the flexible working pattern. This could include operational flexibility, multi-skilling, job sharing, and the use of the sub-controlling and outsourcing, home working and flexible hour arrangements.

·        Operational flexibility

Operational flexibility raises to flexibility in the ways in which work is carried out. Financial flexibility sometimes extends to this term. The three forms of operational flexibility are the following;

Forms of operational flexibility	Description
Functional flexibility	Employees can be redeployed quickly and smoothly between activities and tasks. Require Workers who process and can apply a number of skills. Require workers who carry out a number of different tasks in a work team.
Structural flexibility	‘Flexible firm’ where the core of permanent employees are supplemented by a peripheral group of part-time employees, employees on short or fixed-term contracts or sub-contracted workers (Doeringer and Priore (1971) and Atkinson (1984).
Numerical flexibility	Associated with structural flexibility. The number of employees can be quickly and easily increased or decreased in line with even short-term changes in the level of demand for labor.

Table 1 – Operational Flexibility forms

·         Multi-skilling / Job-Sharing / Homeworking/ Flexible hour arrangements

	Introduction	Advantages
Multi-skilling	The employee can be used flexibly, transferring from one task to another as the occasion demands.	This means multi-skilling take place when workers acquire through experience and training a range of different skills they can apply when carrying out different tasks
Job-Sharing	Two employees share the work of one full-time position, dividing pay and benefits between them according to the time each works is an arrangement. This can be splitting days or weeks or, less frequently, working alternate weeks.	Include reduced employee turnover and absenteeism, due to it suits the needs of individuals.
Homeworking	Such roles as consultants, analysts, designers or programmers or undertake administrative works can carry out home-based employees.	Flexibility to respond to fluctuations in demand, reduced overheads and lower employment costs if the homeworkers are self-employed
Flexible hour arrangements	Can include flexible daily hours, weekly hours, daily and weekly hours, compressed working weeks or annual hours.	The employee may follow an agreed pattern day by day according to typical or expected workload, worked at certain peak periods during the year, working time can be unlike daily or weekly the arrangement, work fewer than the five standard days, scheduling hours on the basis on the number of hours to be works.

Table 2 – The reconsidering employments patterns

Flexible working is a pattern of working practice or working hours that deviates from the stranded or normal arrangement has many advantages.

Reference/Bibliography

Armstrong, M. (2012) Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 12th edition

Lypton,T (1975) Best fit in the design of organizations,personal review,4(1), pp 15-22

https://salesrain.com/the-rise-of-flexible-working/

Learning Theories and Styles

How people learn

The two ways of learning are individuals learn for themselves and learn from other peoples. Social learning that people learn as a member of teams and by interaction with their managers, co-workers, and people outside the organization. Experiential learning is people learn by doing and by coaching.  Individuals learn will differ and the extent to which they learn will depend largely on how well they are motivated or self-motivated. The key learning theories are following,

Reinforcement theory	Cognitive learning theory	Experiential learning theory	Social learning theory
Changes in behavior take place as a result of an individual’s response to events or rewards or punishments. ‘Operant conditioning’	Learning involves gaining knowledge and understanding by absorbing information in the form of principles, concepts and facts and then internalizing it. ‘Powerful information – Processing machines’	When people learn from their experience by absorbing and reflecting on it so that it can be understood and applied. ‘Own learning’	Effective learning requires social interaction. ‘Communities of practice’

Table 1 – Learning Theories

Learning styles

Individual’s learners will have different styles – a preference for a particular approach to learning, but learning theories describe in general terms how people learn. There are two most familiar learning styles produced by Kolb et al and by Honey and Mumford.

Kolb et al’s learning style

Kolb et al (1974) identified a learning cycle consisting of four stages defined as follows:

01	Concrete Experience	It can be planned or accidental.	How experience is translated into concepts that are then used to guide the selection of new experiences. Learn effectively. Individuals must shift from being observers to participants. From direct involvement to a more objective analytical detachment.
02	Reflective Observation	Involves actively thinking about the experience and its significance
03	Abstract conceptualization	Generalizing from experience to develop various concepts and ideas that can be applied when similar situations and encountered.
04	Active experimentation	Testing the concepts or ideas in news situations.

Table 2 –  Kolb et al (1974) learning cycle consists

Figure 1 Kolb et al’s learning cycle

The Honey and Mumford learning styles (1996)

01.  Activists – who involve themselves fully without bias in new experiences and revel in new challenges.

02.  Reflectors – Who stand back and observe new experiences from different angles. Collect data, reflect on it and then come to a conclusion.

03.  Theorists – Who adapt and apply their observations in the form of logical theories.

04.  Pragmatists – Who are keen to try out new ideas, approaches, and concepts to see if they work?

Figure 2 Honey and Mumford learning cycle

Reference/Bibliography

Armstrong, M. (2012) Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 12th edition

Honey, P and Mumford, A(1996) The manual of learning styles,3^rdedn, Maidenhead, Honey publications

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles

https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html

https://community.dpgplc.co.uk/blog/honey-and-mumford-learning-styles-a-simple-picture

Learning & Development - Organization

Introduction

The people with a high level of knowledge, skills, and abilities are more important to the organization. This is essential to that any stages taken to satisfy this need are organizational in the sense that they are based on an understanding of the strategic imperative of the organization and support the achievements related to the organizational goals. Except that the personal needs of those they employ for development and growth are need to take account by the organizations.

Learning and Development defined

Harrison (2009: 8) defined learning and development more broadly as “ The primary purpose of learning and development as an organizational process is to aid collective progress through the collaborative, expert and ethical stimulation and facilitation of learning and knowledge that support business goals, develop individual potential, and respect and build on diversity.”

The constituents of learning and development are follows

Learning	Development	Training	Education
A person acquires and develops knowledge, skills, capabilities, behaviors, and attitudes. Modification of behavior through experience. Formal methods of people to learn within or outside the workplace.	The growth or realization of a person’s ability and potential through the provision of learning and educational experience.	The systematic application of formal the process to impart knowledge. Help people to obtain the skills necessary for them to achieve their jobs satisfactorily.	The development of the knowledge and value. Understanding required in all aspects of life rather than the knowledge and skills relating to particular areas activities.

Table 1 – The constituents of learning and development

Figure 1 Components of a learning and development

Learning is what individuals do and training is what organizations do to individuals. Also learning should be eminent from training. ‘Learning is the process by which person constructs new knowledge, skills, and capabilities, whereas training is one of several responses an organization can undertake to promote learning’ (Reynolds et al,2002: 9).

Strategic Learning & Development

To helping people to learn and develop that be situated concerned with how the organization’s goals will be achieved through its human resource by means of combined learning and development strategies, policies and practices is the approach called strategic Learning and development. This approach aimed to produce an intelligible and inclusive framework for developing people through the creation of a learning culture and the formulation of organizational and individual learning strategies.

Reference/Bibliography

Armstrong, M. (2012) Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 12th edition

Harrison, R (2009) learning and development, 5thedn, London, CIPD

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Components-of-learning-and-development_fig1_309134383

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_and_development

Formal & Informal approaches to Management Development

Introduction

Management development is concerned with improving the performance of managers in their present roles, preparing them to take on greater responsibilities in the future and also developing their leadership skills. The organization can produce, mainly from within, a supply of managers better equipped for their jobs at all levels are the objective of management development. It was defined by Baldwin and Patgett (1994), quoted by Peters (2010:28), as ‘A complex process by which individuals learn to perform effectively in a management role’. There are two policies involved in the management development named Formal & Informal approaches.

Formal Approaches to Management Development

Consist of process and events that are planned and provided by the organization are the Formal approaches to management development.  The identification of development needs should be based on this approach. This can be done systematically at development centers for producing personal development plans and learning contracts. The development needs identifying by the program of exercises, tests, and interviews, competency frameworks.  

Inputs in Formal Approaches	Outcomes in Formal Approaches
Planned experience, which includes job rotation, job enlargements, taking part in project teams or task groups and secondment outside the organization	The managers learn to manage mainly by managing
Coaching - A personal and usually one-to-one approach	Develop their skill and levels of competence
Mentoring – The process of using specially selected and individuals to provide guidance, pragmatic advice and continuing support	The person or persons allocated to them to learn and develop.
Action learning – managers develop their talent by exposing them to real problems	The managers analyze them, formulate recommendation and they take action.
Outdoor learning – getting teams of participants to carry out physical activities	Managers can act under pressure as team leaders or team members
Structured self-development	Following a self-directed learning programme set out in a personal development plan and agreed as a learning contract with the manager or a management development advice

Table 1 – Inputs & Outcomes of Formal Approaches

Informal approaches to Management Development

Informal approached to management development make use of the learning experiences managers encounter during the course of their everyday work. The managers are learning every time with an unusual problem, an unfamiliar task, move to a different job, and evolve new ways of dealing with the situation, success & failure events. Those learning named as experimental and reflective learning. Both learning ways will be create effective successfully managers in the future.

Inputs in Informal Approaches	Outcomes in Informal Approaches
Performance management	Emphasizing self-assessment and the identification of development needs by getting managers to assess their own performance against agreed objectives and analyze the factors that contributed to effective or less effective performance
Self – Directed learning programs	Getting managers to produce their own personal development plans
Encouraging managers to discuss their problems and opportunities with their problems and opportunities with their managers, colleagues or mentors	Establish for themselves what they need to learn or be able to do

Table 2 - Inputs & Outcomes of Informal Approaches

Reference/Bibliography

Armstrong, M. (2012) Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 12th edition.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_development

Baldwin, T T and Patgett, M Y (1994) Management development: a review and a commentary, in (eds) C L Cooper and J T Roberston, Key Reviews in Management Development, New York, Wiley